During the first portion of the twentieth century, pragmatism was the dominant philosophy in the United States. Its popularity resulted as a reaction to nineteenth century idealism and was influenced by the growth of industry which rewarded hard work. It emphasizes practicality of ideas, stressing experience over fixed principles. It holds that truth is found in the process of verification, that actions and beliefs must be judged by their practical results. To pragmatists what is real is justified by workability and utility. A pragmatist neither accepts notions on faith nor has any use for unreasoning belief; he employs knowledge and strategy to optimize his chances and makes all decisions based on logic. Pragmatism is a method of determining truth and resolving disputes.
Charles Peirce, the founder of pragmatism, first wrote about his ideas in a science journal in 1877. Peirce was a logician who insisted that truth would be revealed through scientific investigation. His theory is that when an experiment is conducted, a stated experience will result. In Peirce's view, truth is destined to be agreed by all who perform such experiments. Peirce's interpretations of the meaning of ideas and purposive character of belief were influenced by Immanuel Kant.
William James developed a different version of pragmatism which he made popular by delivering many lectures. In 1907 he wrote a book entitled Pragmatism which explains that the meaning of an idea is known when the effects are made clear. James asserts that the following phrases indicate the same thing: "It is useful because it is true." and "It is true because it is useful." He evaluates the virtue of belief by its effectiveness in helping people to manage their problems. James supports individuals having religious beliefs if those beliefs benefit them mentally and morally. He maintains that belief in God is as rational as atheism because no solid evidence refutes God's existence. His view is that thought is not only purposive but emotional as well. According to James, an idea is true when it complies with life and nature.
John Dewey created his form of pragmatism after reading the works by Peirce and James. He contends that considering all options leading to the best conclusion is an approach that should be directed to moral and social questions in addition to scientific issues. Dewey's view that experience is an active and social process modified the American education system during his time. With the influence of his friend George Herbert Mead, Dewey incorporates his knowledge of psychology and education to reformulate the existing doctrines of pragmatism. The ideology that results is instrumentalism, which Dewey says encompasses logic and humanism.
The appeal of pragmatism declined and was replaced with positivism during the 1930s. Though many scholars regarded it as an unsuitable philosophy, pragmatism supported the liberal ideology of that time and has remained significant in American philosophical history.
Samantha Newcomb